Using Unbiased, Inclusive Language in Academic Writing

September 11, 2023 | Blog

Academic publishing provides a space for new ideas to shape society and deepen our understanding of the world. However, the language used to deliver those ideas plays a critical role in shaping others’ perceptions of the people we write about, making it essential for academic writers and editors to ensure that the language we use is not only accurate and precise but also free from bias. This means respecting and representing diverse perspectives, identities and experiences by choosing our words and phrases carefully and deliberately.

Why Should We Use Inclusive Language?  

According to The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), ‘Biased language … distracts many readers and makes the work less credible …. Careful writers avoid language that reasonable readers might find offensive or distracting’ (5.251, 5.253).

Researchers want their work to be read as widely as possible and received favourably by audiences; offending those audiences is counter to that goal. When it comes to academic writing, it therefore makes sense to carefully avoid words, terms, idioms, or arguments that exhibit bias or give rise to offence.

Additionally, in academic writing, using the appropriate bias-free language is a way of signalling that the author is aware of current issues and conventions. The use of a biased or offensive term might cause readers to wonder: if the author isn’t aware that this is an offensive word, what else are they unaware of?

Current Guidelines Regarding Bias-Free Language

Cultural standards and the meanings and usages of words are always changing, and it can be difficult to know which words are currently acceptable. For guidance, academic writers and editors can look to style authorities such as the American Medical Association (AMA), the American Psychological Association (APA) and CMOS, all of which provide comprehensive guidelines to help writers and editors produce writing that is bias-free and inclusive. This article provides an overview of the current guidance on inclusive language issued by these authorities and others.

Gender, Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation

Before we address perhaps the most hot-button bias issue – gender – it’s necessary to define some terms. There is an important distinction between sex and gender. The term sexual orientation refers to the many different ways people can be attracted to each other romantically, emotionally or sexually, while gender identity encompasses a broad spectrum of psychological experiences related to how individuals perceive themselves, either aligned with or different from conventional categories. Sex and gender are distinct concepts and should not be used interchangeably.

Avoiding biased language is about respecting the personal experiences and perceptions of individuals and honouring their own visions of themselves. Language that reflects bias towards individuals of certain genders, gender identities or sexual orientations fails to adequately respect and represent the full spectrum of human gender identity and sexual orientation.

Examples of gender-biased language include using masculine language to describe all people (such as using mankind rather than humankind) and categorising all people solely based on the traditional gender binary (male or female). In crafting language that fully represents the human experience, we should be guided by the principles of accuracy, respect and inclusivity.

When referring to gender and sex in academic writing, follow these guidelines:

• Avoid using masculine pronouns when referring to individuals generally. For example, don’t write A student must return his homework on time when referencing students of all genders.
• Use plural, gender-neutral language (Students must return their homework on time) or omit pronouns altogether when possible (Homework must be returned on time).
• Use he/him and she/her only if those pronouns match the people being described.
• Avoid combination forms such as s(he), s/he and he/she.
• The use of they or their as a singular pronoun (A student must return their homework on time) to refer to a person whose gender is unknown or a person who prefers not to use traditional gender-specific pronouns is gaining acceptance as inclusive and respectful. However, see ‘Notes on the use of singular they’ below.
• Eliminate sex-specific suffixes (for example, use actor and host rather than actress and hostess). For compounds ending in -man, like chairman, the root form (chair) is often preferable to the clumsier compound ending in -person (chairperson), although some -person forms, such as salesperson and businessperson, are commonly recognised and used.
• When gender is relevant, it’s acceptable to use the noun woman as a modifier (woman negotiator), though the adjective female is more desirable in parallel constructions (25 male and 48 femalestudents).
• Never use lady as an adjective (lady scientist).
• If referring to a known person, use their self-professed gender and preferred pronouns, regardless of their assigned sex at birth. If you are unsure, ask the individual, use their full name, or rework the language to avoid using pronouns at all.
• Use an individual’s current name and pronouns, even when referring to past events (unless they request otherwise).
• Use terms like gay and lesbian instead of homosexual, which can be viewed as stigmatising.
• Recognise all nonbinary and genderqueer identities by using phrases like all genders rather than both genders.

Notes on the Use of Singular They

Merriam-Webster notes that singular they has been in use since the 1300s and mirrors the development of the singular you. Despite its extensive history, the use of singular they has long been controversial in formal writing and is still seen by some as an error when it references a singular indefinite antecedent. Acceptance of this usage is growing, however, and the next edition of the AMA Manual of Style will formally endorse it. For now, the AMA’s editors recommend recasting the sentence to avoid singular they in formal writing.

CMOS still advises against using they as a singular pronoun in formal contexts when referring to individuals whose gender is unknown or irrelevant, but acknowledges that authors may use it when following other guidelines that specifically allow it. CMOS does, however, endorse the use of singular they, even in formal writing, when a specific, known person does not identify with the pronouns he or she.

The APA’s guidance on singular they is more progressive and straightforward – it can be used when the gender of the person in question is unknown or irrelevant and when an individual prefers they to he or she.

When using the reflexive form of they, the correct usage is themselves rather than themself, which should be avoided in academic writing.

The usage of singular they is controversial and ever-evolving, so always check your style guide’s current position on this point. For more detailed guidance, see the APA’s guides to writing about gender and sexual orientation, as well as the Trans Journalists Association’s Style Guide.

Racial and Ethnic Identities

In Advancing Health Equity: A Guide to Language, Narrative and Concepts, the AMA argues for the urgent need to challenge the dominant narratives about race.

When addressing race and ethnic identity in academic writing, follow these guidelines:

• Be as specific as possible when referring to ethnic groups (for example, when you mean Korean or Vietnamese, avoid using the broader term Asian).
• Capitalise the names of ethnic and national groups, whether used as nouns or adjectives: Inuit, South African migrants, Indigenous people.
• Check your style guide’s position on capitalising Black and White. Both of these terms are capitalised in the current APA and AMA CMOS is less prescriptive, noting that capitalising Black as a racial or ethnic identity is becoming more common, and that White may also be capitalised for consistency. However, some style guides offer different recommendations: the guidelines for SAGE Publications direct authors not to capitalise white to avoid the negative connotations associated with the capitalised form of the word. Always check your style guide’s recommendations.
• Use people of colour and communities of colour when referring to groups of people who are not White and who cannot be more specifically identified.
• Do not use the term non-White or other terms that treat Whiteness as a default.
• Avoid the term BIPOC, which implies a hierarchy among communities of colour.

For more information, see the APA’s guidelines on writing about racial and ethnic identity, the AMA’s Advancing Health Equity: A Guide to Language, Narratives and Concepts and the Sage Inclusive Language Guide.

Indigenous Peoples

Indigenous peoples have a wide range of different identities, cultures and experiences, and the language we use should reflect that.

When referring to Indigenous people in academic writing, follow these guidelines:

• In Canadian and Australian English, capitalise Indigenous when referring to the original inhabitants of a place (Indigenous Australians, Indigenous people). UK and US usage permits the lowercase form (indigenous people).
• Refer to groups of people as they refer to themselves; for example, Inuit rather than Eskimo, First Nations rather than Indian, Sámi rather than Lapps.
• When referring to a group, use the term peoples or nations rather than tribe, and be as specific as possible. For instance, in Australia, Indigenous nations encompass several distinct groups of people including the Yolngu, Arrernte, Noongar and Kaurna.
• If you’re unsure how to refer to a specific group, seek guidance from local community organisations. Preferences for general terminology differ between (and sometimes within) groups of people. For example, some Indigenous Australians identify as First Nations Peoples, while others prefer the term Aboriginal Australians.

For more information, see the APA’s Indigenous Peoples Around the World, the Australian Government Style Manual’s page on Inclusive Language: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the Journalists for Human Rights’ Style Guide for Reporting on Indigenous People.

Disability  

Person-First and Identity-First Language

When writing about people with disabilities, there are two main approaches.

In person-first language, the person is emphasised over the condition, so you would say a person with an amputation rather than an amputee or a person with paraplegia rather than a paraplegic.

In identity-first language, the disability is the focus, allowing the individual to reclaim and even embrace a condition that once had negative connotations. For instance, some Deaf individuals prefer to be called Deafrather than people who are deaf.

When talking about disability, you can use either person-first or identity-first language – or a mixture of the two to avoid repetitive syntax – unless or until you know that a group clearly prefers one approach, in which case you should respect that preference. If you need guidance on the preferred way to refer to a specific group, seek clarity from self-advocacy groups or other stakeholders specific to that group of people.

General Guidelines

Regardless of which approach you use, certain general guidelines apply when writing about people with disabilities:

• Avoid terms that apply restriction or confinement (wheelchair-bound).
• Avoid terms that label people as powerless or passive (AIDS victim, brain-damaged).
• Avoid terms that could be seen as slurs (mentally unstable, invalid, alcoholic).
• Avoid condescension and euphemisms (special needs, handi-capable).
• Use specific language (person with schizophrenia, person with alcohol use disorder, Deaf person).

Further Reading

For more information and a detailed list of problematic and preferred terminology, see American Psychological Association: Disability, the AMA’s Advancing Health Equity: A Guide to Language, Narrative and Concepts and specific advocacy groups such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Autistic Society.

Age

Many of the terms typically used to talk about age can be stigmatising, especially in research contexts.

To avoid age bias in academic writing:

• Use specific age ranges, medians and means when reporting research methods.
• Avoid terms like the elderly, seniors and the aged. Use older adults or older individuals
• Be cautious with terms like young people or youth, and ensure they are used appropriately based on context. The APA provides examples of specific and appropriate alternatives.
• Be mindful of outdated terms such as senile or geriatric. (Geriatric is acceptable in reference to healthcare but not people; for instance, geriatric ward.)
• Use neutral language that does not propagate negative attitudes towards ageing.

Further Reading

For more information, see American Psychological Association: Age and the AMA’s Advancing Health Equity: A Guide to Language, Narrative and Concepts.

Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status encompasses an array of characteristics and experiences involving opportunity, privilege and outcomes. Precise language should be used to ensure specificity and sensitivity in the particular study context.

General Guidelines

• Avoid stigmatising language related to socioeconomic status, such as poor people.
• Opt for relevant and neutral phrasing, such as people with low income or under-resourced individuals.
• Avoid euphemisms for socioeconomic status, which can be pejorative and stereotyping. For example, the terms the homeless, inner-city, poverty-stricken and welfare-reliant carry negative connotations. Instead, adopt specific and person-first language.
• Don’t make assumptions or generalisations about a person’s capabilities, values or worth based on their socioeconomic status.

Further Reading

For more information, see the APA’s guidance on writing about socioeconomic status and the AMA’s Advancing Health Equity: A Guide to Language, Narrative and Concepts.

Staying Up to Date

Language evolves constantly, so it’s crucial for both writers and editors to stay current and pay close attention to the discourse surrounding inclusive language and shifts in usage. A term that was deemed acceptable a few months ago may now be controversial. Remain open to feedback, continually educate yourself and consult up-to-date resources. If you’re an editor, encourage the authors you work with and your peers to flag non-inclusive language to help prompt change.

Inclusive language involves more than just adhering to guidelines and ticking boxes. Instead, internalising a critical approach to the words we use ensures that we create environments and contribute to narratives that value, respect and represent all individuals. It is only by continually reaffirming our commitment to this goal that we can maintain credibility with our readership.